( ISSN 2277 - 9809 (online) ISSN 2348 - 9359 (Print) ) New DOI : 10.32804/IRJMSH

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CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: SOCIAL PROCESSES TILL THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY HINDUSTAN

    1 Author(s):  AMIT CHAUDHARY

Vol -  6, Issue- 6 ,         Page(s) : 409 - 415  (2015 ) DOI : https://doi.org/10.32804/IRJMSH

Abstract

By the seventeenth century Muslim traders, Sufis and new ruling clans – the new-comers of once – had become centuries-old for the other caste, class, ethnic groups and religion by interaction in day to day life. Strange as it may seem, as new ruling clan the Mughals were neither new nor identical to earlier Muslim ruling clans of Delhi Sultanate like Mamluks, Khiljis, Thughlaqs, Saiyads, Lodhis and Suris, and to the people of Hindustan. Before the advent of Mughals in first quarter of sixteenth century, this process of coming, settling down and assimilation had been repeated so many times. This was the process that put forwarded the Lodhis, the then ruling dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, to fight against Mughals in order to save the land and people from the new entrant clan. However, Mughals were going to be a longest ruling dynasty and at the end they fought to the new entrants i.e. Europeans companies turned competitor rulers and lost altogether with other indigenous powers. These political occurrences, almost similar in nature and pattern, produced some noticeable changes in the society of Hindustan as well.

  1.  Douglas E. Streusand, The Formation of the Mughal Empire, New Delhi, 1999, p. 5 “[According to] present-minded historians... [Akbar,] made both Muslims and Hindus full participants in the Mughal Empire and thus created a ‘national’ as opposed to sectarian, kingdom. To describe the Mughal empire as national is anachronistic; there was no mass involvement or attachment to a geographic or ethnic rather than a dynastic ideal.” Streusand criticizes those historians who see Akbar as founding a ‘national empire’ because it is a “present-minded” concept and sides with the views of Michael Pearson and Peter Hardy who state that  mansabdari was the true form of loyalty to the empire rather ‘nation’.
  2.  J N Sarkar,  History of Aurangzib, 5 vols., 2nd edn., Bombay, reprint 1952; R. C. Majumadar, The History and Culture of the Indian People, ‘The Mughul Empire (1526-1707)’, Vol. 7, Bombay, 1974; I. H. Qureshi, The Muslim Community of the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (610-1947), Delhi, reprint 1998 presents the opposite but symmetric view.
  3.  Tara Chand, The Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, Allahabad, 1923, reprint 1954 is notable exception  in this direction. S.A.A. Rizvi, History of Sufism, New Delhi, reprint, 2000; Muslim Revivalist Movements in North India in the Sixteenth and the Seventeenth Centuries, New Delhi, 1993, p. 3.
  4.   Audrey N. Clark, The Penguin Dictionary of Geography, England, 2nd edn., 1998, pp.98-99,384 for definition of  Cultural ‘landscape’, ‘hearth’ and ‘sphere’.
  5.  Al-beruni, Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li-l Hind or Alberuni’s India, tr. and ed. Edward C. Sachau, London, 1888, New Delhi, reprint 1989, vol.I, pp.19-20
  6.  Ibn-battuta, Rehla, tr. H.A.R. Gibb, Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354, London, 1957 p.48 An ascetic Burhanad-Din of Alexandria told Battuta that he would meet in Hind an another ascetic Dilshad and used a suffix Hindustani as his last name.
  7.   Ibid. p.71-72.
  8.  Alberuni’s India, Op. cit., I, p.180; II, p.152 Al-beruni gives a hypothetically reason of chewing betel nuts.
  9.  Ibn-battuta  Op. cit. p.71,114 Betel leaf as gift to any person was thought to be greater than money if it was given by Sultan; prince or notable. 
  10.  Raziuddiin Aquil, Sufism, Culture, and Politics Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India, New Delhi, 2007, p.11 The majority of these ‘Hidustanis’ were converted Muslim who were seen by Barani as “a perverse burlesque of society.”
  11.  M.Athar Ali, “Encounter and Efflorescence The Genesis of the Medieval Civilization” in Mughal India Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture, New Delhi, 2006, reprint 2011. p.19
  12.  Muhammad Yasin, A Social History of Islamic India, 1605-1748, Lucknow, p.1
  13.  “Encounter and Efflorescence” Op. cit. p.19 Thakkura Pheru was an officer in the mint and an another Hindu officer Sadharana were working under Alauddin Khalji.
  14.  “Encounter and Efflorescence” Op. cit.,  p.19
  15.  Formation of the Mughal Empire, Op. cit., p.153
  16.  Harbans Mukhia, The Mughals of India, Oxford, Indian reprint 2005, p.158
  17.   Abul Fazl, Akbarnama, vol. II, tr. H. Beveridge, Calcutta, 1912, pp. 510-12
  18.  Harbans Mukhia, Op. cit.  p.157 
  19.  Formation of the Mughal Empire, Ibid., p.152
  20.  Ibid., p.152
  21.  Ibid., p.153; Iqtidar Alam Khan, ‘The Nobility under Akbar and the Development of his Religious Policy, 1560-80, JRAS, 1968, pp.30-36.
  22.  Formation of the Mughal Empire, Op. cit., p.153
  23.  “Encounter and Efflorescence”, Op. cit., pp.12-13.
  24.  Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui, ‘Life and Culture in the Sultanate of Delhi during the Lodhi Period (1451-1526)’,  Islamic Culture, Vol. 56, No. 3, 1982, p. 186;  see also Formation of the Mughal Empire, Op. cit. p.153
  25.  J.F.Richards, ‘Norms of Comportment among Imperial Mughal Officers’, in Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam, ed. Barbara Daly Metcalf, Berkeley, 1984, pp. 272-274; P.V. Kane, ‘The Kayastha’, New Indian Antiquary, 1, 1929, pp.740-43.  
  26.  Norman P. Ziegler, ‘Some Notes on Rajput Loyalties during the Mughal Period’, in J.F. Richards, ed., Kingship and Authority, p.230
  27.  Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui, Op. cit. p. 186 the death of Raja Bikramajit Tomar of Gawalior against Babar is a testimony of Rajput-Muslim alliance formed on equally shared values as they fought together against their common foe Babur; Norman P. Ziegler, Op. cit., p. 235.
  28.  Norman P. Ziegler, Op. cit. p.235; Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui, Op. cit., p. 186; see also Zahiru’d-din Muhammad Babur, Baburnama, tr. A.S. Beveridge, New Delhi, reprint 1979 p.590-591 as witness of long standing Hindu-Muslim relations and tolerance as a tradition.  
  29.  S. Inayat A. Zaidi, ‘Akbar and the Rajput Principalities: Integration into Empire’, in Akbar and His India, ed. Irfan Habib, New Delhi, 2000, p.23-24
  30.  Ibid.,  p.23-24
  31.   Harry M. Johnson, Sociology: A Systematic Introduction, New York, 1960, p.85 the process indicated as the learning process of language. 
  32.   Mohammad Yasin,  A Social History of Islamic India, Lucknow, 1958, pp.1-19.

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